First, we review the decision-making literature to clarify conceptual and operational differences between externally and internally guided decision-making. This study compares externally and internally guided decision-making in both respects: empirically and theoretically. More specifically, the neuronal and psychological mechanisms that guide decisions based on more internally oriented internal criteria in the absence of external ones remain unclear. Although subjects can draw on their representation of circumstantial criteria in externally guided decision-making, how and on what they can base their decision in internally guided decision-making remains unclear. One might consecutively want to speak of internally guided decision-making as distinguished from externally guided decision-making. Such decisions are usually made in the context of moral decision-making (e.g., Moll et al., 2006 Greene and Paxton, 2009) as well as in the context of preference judgment ( Paulus and Frank, 2003 Johnson et al., 2005 Nakao et al., 2009a, 2010a, c), where the answer depends on the subject’s own, i.e., internal, preferences rather than on external, i.e., circumstantial, criteria.

In addition to such externally guided decision-making, instances of decision-making do exist for which there is no correct answer available for a subject based on external circumstances ( Goldberg and Podell, 1999, 2000 Lieberman and Eisenberger, 2005 Volz et al., 2006 Nakao et al., 2009b). One might consequently want to speak of externally guided decision-making in such a case. Although such studies particularly addressing low-predictability include uncertainty related to an answer ( Platt and Huettel, 2008 Rushworth and Behrens, 2008), they nevertheless presuppose a particular correct answer based on the external circumstances.

Most experimental studies of decision-making have addressed situations in which one particular more or less-predictable answer is available. How the human brain predisposes us to make certain choices while not making others is an important question that is often explored in current neuroscience ( Bechara et al., 2000 O’Doherty, 2004, 2007 Sanfey et al., 2006 Volz et al., 2006 Wallis, 2007 Platt and Huettel, 2008 Rangel et al., 2008 Rilling et al., 2008b Rolls and Grabenhorst, 2008 Sanfey and Chang, 2008 Vorhold, 2008 Balleine and O’Doherty, 2010 Ohira et al., 2010). Finally, based on the review and results of the meta-analysis, we discuss the differences and relations between decision-making of these two types in terms of their operational, neuronal, and theoretical characteristics. This result suggests that studying only externally guided decision-making under uncertainty is insufficient to account for decision-making processes in the brain. Our meta-analysis revealed that the neural network used predominantly for internally guided decision-making differs from that for externally guided decision-making under uncertainty. Second, using multi-level kernel density analysis, a whole-brain-based quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies was performed. First, we reviewed studies of decision-making to clarify experimental–operational differences between externally guided and internally guided decision-making. This study was undertaken to compare decision-making of these two kinds empirically and theoretically. The neuronal and psychological mechanisms that allow guidance of decisions based on more internally oriented criteria in the absence of external ones remain unclear. Such decisions are usually made in the context of moral decision-making as well as in preference judgment, where the answer depends on the subject’s own, i.e., internal, preferences rather than on external, i.e., circumstantial, criteria. Along with such externally guided decision-making, there are instances of decision-making in which no correct answer based on external circumstances is available for the subject (internally guided decision-making). Most experimental studies of decision-making have specifically examined situations in which a single less-predictable correct answer exists (externally guided decision-making under uncertainty). 3 Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.2 Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.1 Mind, Brain Imaging and Neuroethics, Institute of Mental Health Research, Royal Ottawa Health Care Group, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.

Takashi Nakao 1,2*, Hideki Ohira 3 and Georg Northoff 1

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